King’s College Chapel Cambridge: Complete Visitor Guide, History and Highlights

King’s College Chapel is the building that defines Cambridge before you even arrive.

Its four corner towers rise above the River Cam, its long limestone body dominates King’s Parade, and its silhouette appears on everything from university brochures to Christmas broadcasts. Yet the famous exterior only hints at what lies inside.

Enter the Chapel and the scale changes completely. Stone seems to lose its weight. Enormous windows flood the interior with coloured light, a forest of carved Tudor wood divides nave from choir, and above everything stretches the largest fan-vaulted stone ceiling in the world.

King’s is one of those rare monuments where reputation has not exaggerated the experience.

But the Chapel is only part of the story.

King’s College began as the personal project of a nineteen-year-old king, survived the Wars of the Roses, was completed under the Tudors, admitted almost exclusively students from Eton for more than four centuries and eventually became one of Cambridge’s most intellectually distinctive colleges.

Its Chapel contains the ambitions of Henry VI, Henry VII and Henry VIII, medieval stone carving, Tudor propaganda, Renaissance stained glass, a Rubens masterpiece and one of the world’s most celebrated choral traditions.

Allow at least 60–90 minutes for King’s College and Chapel. Stay longer if you enjoy architecture, stained glass or music.

This is not a place to rush through simply because the ceiling is famous.

What to See at King’s College and King’s College Chapel

• King’s College Front Gate
• Front Court
• King’s College Chapel exterior
• The fan-vaulted ceiling
• The Tudor rood screen
• The Chapel organ
• The Renaissance stained-glass windows
• Rubens’ Adoration of the Magi
• The choir stalls
• The side chapels
• The Memorial Chapel
• The College grounds
• The Back Lawn
• The River Cam and King’s Bridge
• The view towards the Backs
• The Xu Zhimo Memorial Stone
• Choral Evensong
• A Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols

King’s College: A Royal Foundation Built on an Enormous Idea

King’s College was founded in 1441 by Henry VI.

The king was only nineteen years old.

His original plan was relatively modest: a provost and twelve poor scholars, symbolically echoing Christ and the twelve apostles.

Then Henry changed his mind.

What began as a small royal college became one of the most ambitious educational schemes attempted in medieval England.

The revised institution was to contain seventy scholars, a number associated with the seventy disciples of Christ, and those students would come directly from another of Henry’s new foundations: Eton College.

The relationship became extraordinarily close.

For more than four centuries, King’s admitted students almost exclusively from Eton. Its scholars even enjoyed the remarkable privilege of receiving Cambridge degrees without sitting the normal university examinations.

King’s was not intended merely to be another college.

Henry VI wanted to create a royal educational machine linking Eton and Cambridge, producing educated men for the Church and government while simultaneously advertising royal piety and prestige.

Architecture was central to that ambition.

And the Chapel was to be its masterpiece.

Henry VI and the Creation of King’s College Chapel

Henry VI wanted a chapel unlike anything attached to an English college.

His instructions were unusually precise.

The building was to measure approximately 289 feet long and 40 feet wide, without conventional side aisles, creating the extraordinary long, uninterrupted interior seen today.

Rather than designing a small collegiate chapel, Henry effectively ordered something closer in scale to the choir of a cathedral.

The first master mason was Reginald Ely, one of the leading craftsmen working for the Crown.

The foundation stone was laid in 1446, five years after the foundation of King’s College.

At this stage nobody involved could have imagined how long construction would take.

The Wars of the Roses were about to tear England apart.

A Chapel That Took Nearly 70 Years to Build

King’s College Chapel looks astonishingly coherent.

Its construction history was anything but.

Building occurred in several major campaigns separated by political upheaval and long periods when almost nothing happened.

Henry VI lost his throne during the Wars of the Roses and was eventually imprisoned and killed.

Successive Yorkist rulers inherited a half-built royal chapel associated with their Lancastrian enemy.

Work continued intermittently, partly because abandoning such an enormous structure entirely would have been impractical and politically embarrassing.

Richard III contributed substantial funds to the Chapel despite belonging to the dynasty that had displaced Henry VI.

After Richard died at Bosworth in 1485, construction slowed again.

It was Henry VII, founder of the Tudor dynasty, who finally revived the project decisively.

The political calculation was clever.

Henry VII had defeated Richard III and needed to reinforce the legitimacy of the new Tudor monarchy. Associating himself with Henry VI—who had acquired an almost saintly reputation among Lancastrian supporters—helped give the dynasty historical continuity.

Work restarted on a large scale in 1508.

Henry VII died the following year, but his will provided money to finish the building.

By 1515, under Henry VIII, the main stone structure and spectacular vaulting were complete.

A project conceived by a Lancastrian king had survived Yorkist rule and was ultimately completed under the Tudors.

King’s College Chapel is therefore almost a stone summary of fifteenth-century English politics.

The Exterior: Perpendicular Gothic at Monumental Scale

Before entering, step back onto King’s Parade.

The Chapel is one of the supreme examples of English Perpendicular Gothic, the final great phase of medieval Gothic architecture in England.

Unlike earlier Gothic styles, which often emphasise complicated curves and sculptural richness, Perpendicular architecture celebrates vertical and horizontal order.

Windows become enormous.

Mullions rise in disciplined straight lines.

Walls appear divided into repeated geometric panels.

At King’s this creates a building that is simultaneously enormous and strangely controlled.

The four corner towers rise above battlements and pinnacles, giving the silhouette an unmistakably royal character.

There is another reason the building feels unusually vertical.

The Chapel has no conventional side aisles.

Instead, subsidiary chapels sit between the external buttresses, leaving the central internal space astonishingly open.

Walk around the building if access allows.

From different angles the buttresses, pinnacles and enormous windows create a much more complex structure than the simple long rectangle visible from King’s Parade.

The Fan Vault: The Moment King’s Becomes Extraordinary

Walk inside.

Then look up.

The fan vault is the reason King’s College Chapel belongs among the great buildings of Europe.

It stretches almost the entire length of the interior, covering a space approximately 88 metres long, 12 metres wide and around 24 metres high.

This is considered the largest fan vault in existence.

Fan vaulting is one of the most distinctively English inventions of late Gothic architecture.

Stone ribs radiate outward from a narrow support like the folds of an opening fan.

At King’s these repeated cones intersect with such precision that the ceiling appears almost woven rather than constructed.

The effect is deceptive.

Nothing about it is light.

The vault consists of an immense quantity of stone held aloft through extremely sophisticated geometry and structural engineering.

The principal vaulting campaign was overseen by master mason John Wastell during the early sixteenth century.

He is also associated with other important late Gothic projects, including work at Canterbury and Peterborough.

Look closely at the vault rather than treating it as a single pattern.

Small variations, heraldic symbols and decorative elements appear throughout.

The closer you study it, the less repetitive it becomes.

Why the Fan Vault Was Technically Remarkable

The beauty is obvious.

The engineering is easier to miss.

Fan vaulting depends on constructing curved stone surfaces whose ribs and panels work together structurally.

Each fan rises from a slender wall shaft before expanding dramatically towards the ceiling.

The apparent delicacy depends on precise geometry.

Unlike many Gothic vaults where ribs clearly articulate separate structural bays, the fan vault produces a more continuous visual surface.

This gives King’s its extraordinary unity.

Imagine attempting to build this without modern structural analysis, steel reinforcement or computer modelling.

Every stone had to be designed, cut, positioned and supported by craftsmen working from full-scale geometric principles.

That is why the ceiling deserves more than thirty seconds of admiration.

It represents one of the final technical triumphs of medieval English masonry.

The Tudor Rood Screen: Henry VIII Changes the Mood

Halfway through the Chapel, the architectural atmosphere suddenly changes.

A richly carved wooden screen divides the ante-chapel from the choir.

This is the Tudor rood screen, created during the reign of Henry VIII.

It is one of the most important surviving pieces of Tudor woodwork in England.

Look closely at the decoration.

Among the elaborate carving appear the initials H and A.

They refer to Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.

That places the screen within an extraordinarily narrow historical window.

Henry married Anne in 1533.

She was executed in 1536.

The initials therefore preserve the brief moment when Anne Boleyn stood at the centre of Tudor power.

You can also find Tudor roses and other royal emblems woven into the decoration.

This is not innocent ornament.

The screen is political propaganda carved into oak.

Medieval religious space had become a stage for Tudor monarchy.

The Chapel Organ

Above the screen rises the great organ.

The gilded pipes and dark wooden case form one of the defining views inside the Chapel.

There were organs here from at least the sixteenth century, although the present instrument incorporates centuries of rebuilding and modification.

The modern organ is primarily associated with the firm Harrison & Harrison and was comprehensively renovated during the twenty-first century.

Its importance is inseparable from the acoustics of the building.

King’s Chapel has an extremely distinctive resonance.

Sound rises into the huge vaulted volume and returns with enough reverberation to enrich choral music without entirely destroying clarity.

That interaction between architecture and sound is one reason recordings of the King’s College Choir have such an immediately recognisable character.

If possible, hear the organ in use.

Looking at it is impressive.

Hearing it activate the building is something else entirely.

The Stained Glass: A Miraculous Survival

The Chapel contains one of the most important surviving collections of early sixteenth-century stained glass in Europe.

Most of the great windows were created between roughly 1515 and 1531, during the reign of Henry VIII.

Their survival is remarkable.

English medieval and Renaissance stained glass suffered catastrophically during the Reformation, the Civil War and later periods of religious destruction.

King’s somehow retained a spectacularly complete ensemble.

The windows combine biblical scenes from the Old and New Testaments.

Look at them systematically rather than as coloured decoration.

Upper and lower scenes are arranged to create theological relationships between events in the Hebrew Bible and episodes from the life of Christ.

The programme reflects the sophisticated typological thinking of late medieval Christianity, in which Old Testament events were interpreted as foreshadowing New Testament ones.

The colours become particularly vivid when sunlight enters from the south.

Morning and afternoon visits therefore produce noticeably different interiors.

How the Glass Survived the Second World War

During the Second World War, most of the stained glass was removed for protection.

That was an enormous undertaking.

Individual panels had to be carefully documented, dismantled and stored away from possible bombing.

The decision proved fortunate.

Cambridge was not destroyed on the scale suffered by cities such as Coventry, but nobody could know that in advance.

The wartime removal had another consequence.

Conservators took advantage of the situation to examine, clean and photograph the glass systematically.

One window remained largely in position: the west window.

For once, deprived of competition from the spectacular Tudor glazing elsewhere, it received some overdue attention.

The East End and Rubens’ Adoration of the Magi

Walk towards the altar and the chronology suddenly jumps forward more than a century.

Above the altar hangs The Adoration of the Magi by Peter Paul Rubens, painted in 1634.

It was not created for King’s.

Rubens originally painted the work for a convent in Leuven, in present-day Belgium.

The painting eventually entered the art market and was purchased in the twentieth century by collector Alfred Ernest Allnatt.

In 1961, Allnatt gave it to King’s College.

Installing such a large Baroque painting inside one of England’s most important Gothic interiors caused considerable debate.

The eastern end of the Chapel was altered so the Rubens could dominate the sanctuary.

Floor levels were changed and later woodwork removed.

The contrast is dramatic.

Everything around the painting is late medieval or Tudor: pale stone, vertical lines, heraldic carving and stained glass.

Then comes Rubens: movement, flesh, saturated colour and theatrical Baroque energy.

Some visitors find the contrast disruptive.

Others think it gives the east end precisely the visual focus it needed.

Either way, it is impossible to ignore.

The Choir Stalls

Beyond the screen lies the choir.

The dark carved stalls create a much more intimate architectural space inside the vast Chapel.

This is where the musical identity of King’s becomes tangible.

The choir stalls are not decorative museum furniture.

They remain part of a living liturgical environment.

During services, choristers and adult singers occupy these seats much as generations before them have done.

Look at the relationship between the woodwork and the stone architecture.

The human scale of the choir almost acts as a room constructed inside the much larger Gothic shell.

This contrast helps explain why music works so effectively here.

The enormous building becomes acoustically and visually focused around the choir.

The Side Chapels

The Chapel may appear to be one gigantic uninterrupted hall, but eighteen side chapels occupy spaces between the exterior buttresses.

Henry VI’s earliest design seems to have envisaged fewer.

The expansion occurred while construction was already underway.

These side spaces are easy to neglect because everyone instinctively looks upward towards the fan vault.

Do not.

Several contain monuments, artworks and architectural details that reveal how the Chapel evolved over centuries.

Their smaller scale also allows close examination of vaulting and stonework impossible from the centre of the main building.

Some side chapels have uneven steps and more restricted accessibility.

The Memorial Chapel and Rupert Brooke

One side chapel became the Memorial Chapel during the twentieth century.

It commemorates members of King’s and its Choir School who died during the two World Wars.

Among the names is Rupert Brooke, one of the best-known English poets associated with the First World War.

Brooke studied at King’s and became famous for poems including The Soldier.

He died in 1915 not in battle but from septicaemia while travelling with the Royal Naval Division towards Gallipoli.

His presence on the memorial adds a human dimension to King’s reputation for intellectual and artistic achievement.

The College did not exist outside history.

Its students and fellows were repeatedly pulled into the major conflicts and political crises surrounding them.

King’s College Choir

Architecture made the Chapel famous.

Music made it emotionally recognisable around the world.

The Choir of King’s College, Cambridge is one of the most celebrated choral ensembles in Britain.

Its traditional structure includes boy choristers educated at King’s College School together with undergraduate singers known as Choral Scholars.

The choir sings regular services during university term.

This is crucial.

The choir does not exist primarily as a concert ensemble performing in a historic monument.

Its central purpose remains liturgical.

Visitors hearing Evensong are therefore participating in an active religious and musical tradition rather than attending a staged tourist performance.

That distinction changes the atmosphere completely.

Choral Evensong: The Best Way to Experience the Chapel

If your schedule allows it, return for Evensong.

Entry to ordinary Chapel services is free.

Arrive early, particularly on busy days.

Once the service begins, late entry is not permitted.

Photography, video and audio recording are forbidden during worship.

Allow approximately an hour.

The experience is very different from daytime sightseeing.

Tourist conversation stops.

The coloured windows darken.

The building begins to function through sound rather than architecture.

Even visitors with no religious interest often find Evensong one of the most memorable experiences in Cambridge.

The best seat is not necessarily the closest one.

The architecture itself participates in the music.

A Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols

King’s College Chapel becomes globally famous every Christmas through A Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols.

The service was first held at King’s in 1918, shortly after the end of the First World War.

Its structure alternates biblical readings with carols and choral music.

From the 1920s onward, radio broadcasting transformed it into an international tradition.

For millions of listeners, Christmas begins with the opening solo voice of a King’s chorister inside this Chapel.

The service is held on Christmas Eve.

Do not confuse it with an ordinary tourist concert.

Demand is enormous and access follows special arrangements.

There is also a separate televised Christmas service associated with King’s, which can add to confusion for visitors planning specifically around December.

The Opening Solo: A Tiny but Terrifying Tradition

The Festival of Nine Lessons and Carols traditionally begins with a solo chorister singing the opening verse of Once in Royal David’s City.

The identity of the child chosen to sing the solo has historically been revealed very late.

The intention is simple: prevent days of nervous anticipation.

Imagine being a young chorister standing alone in one of the largest Gothic chapels in England knowing your first notes are being heard by millions of people around the world.

King’s specialises in traditions that look serene only from the audience.

The College Grounds

Do not leave immediately after the Chapel.

Continue through the grounds.

The contrast between King’s Parade and the interior lawns is extraordinary.

One moment you are in one of Cambridge’s busiest streets.

Minutes later, the Chapel stands beside vast grass lawns running towards the River Cam.

The College never completed Henry VI’s original planned Great Court.

Instead, buildings accumulated much more gradually.

That unfinished history created the open landscape that today makes King’s visually distinctive.

The relationship between Chapel, lawns and river is more picturesque than Henry’s rigid medieval plan probably would have been.

History failed architecturally and succeeded scenically.

The Back Lawn and the Famous Cambridge View

Walk towards the river and turn around.

This is one of the essential Cambridge views.

King’s College Chapel rises behind the lawn, its vertical towers contrasting with the enormous horizontal stretch of grass.

The composition looks carefully designed.

Much of it is historical accident.

This side of King’s also reveals why the College photographs so differently from the street.

From King’s Parade, the Chapel feels urban and monumental.

From the Backs, it becomes almost pastoral.

That dual identity is one of the reasons no single photograph ever quite captures it.

King’s Bridge and the River Cam

King’s College occupies one of the most attractive stretches of the River Cam.

Its bridge provides views along the Backs towards neighbouring colleges and punting routes.

Crossing the river also changes the scale of the Chapel.

From close range its vertical stonework dominates.

Across the water, architecture and landscape finally balance.

If you later take a punt, the riverside view of King’s is among the highlights of the route.

Punting is touristy.

The view is still excellent.

The Wildflower Meadow

One of the more recent changes to the traditional King’s landscape has been the development of areas of wildflower meadow.

For centuries, Cambridge college lawns represented a very particular English aesthetic: clipped, controlled and intensely green.

Introducing meadow planting created a deliberately different ecology and visual texture.

The effect is most striking during late spring and summer when flowers soften the formal relationship between Gothic architecture and lawn.

It has also become one of the most photographed modern views of King’s.

Not every tradition improves by remaining unchanged.

Xu Zhimo and a Chinese Connection

Near the river stands one of King’s quieter memorials.

A stone commemorates the Chinese poet Xu Zhimo, who studied at King’s in the early 1920s.

He became one of the major figures of modern Chinese poetry.

His poem commonly translated as “Saying Goodbye to Cambridge Again” turned the Cambridge landscape into something deeply personal and helped make King’s particularly resonant for generations of Chinese visitors.

The memorial is deliberately understated.

That suits the poem.

Rather than another monument to kings and scholars, this is a reminder that Cambridge’s cultural influence travelled far beyond Britain through individual memories of place.

The Front Gate and King’s Parade

The monumental entrance on King’s Parade is the public face of the College.

It is worth remembering that much of the architecture visitors instinctively read as ancient Cambridge is actually considerably younger than the Chapel.

The College developed over centuries.

Buildings were demolished, replaced or reorganised as academic life changed.

The famous Gothic appearance of Cambridge is therefore not a frozen medieval survival.

It is a layered construction combining genuinely medieval fabric with later architecture consciously designed to harmonise with it.

The Chapel is the ancient anchor around which much of this visual identity was built.

King’s and Alan Turing

King’s College also has an important twentieth-century scientific connection through Alan Turing.

Turing became an undergraduate at King’s in 1931 and later a Fellow.

His work on mathematical logic, computing and wartime codebreaking fundamentally transformed modern technology and contributed enormously to the Allied war effort.

King’s preserves a close association with him and has commemorated his life through exhibitions, archival material and contemporary artworks.

Turing’s presence is particularly appropriate here.

King’s often appears almost entirely medieval from the outside.

Its intellectual history is anything but.

The College That Stopped Being Exclusively Etonian

For centuries King’s maintained its extraordinary privileged relationship with Eton.

Only in the nineteenth century did that system finally break down.

In 1873, the College began admitting students who were not Etonians.

That change formed part of a broader transformation of Cambridge from a relatively closed network of religious and aristocratic institutions into a more modern academic university.

The shift also helped alter the intellectual character of King’s.

By the twentieth century, the College had developed a reputation for political, artistic and intellectual independence sometimes very different from its intensely royal medieval origins.

Institutions survive by changing.

King’s is an unusually good example.

What Most Visitors Miss

The first mistake is photographing the Chapel and assuming the exterior is the main event.

It is not.

Go inside.

The second is looking only at the ceiling.

Spend time with the stained glass and Tudor screen.

The third is leaving immediately after the Chapel.

Walk to the river.

The fourth is ignoring the side chapels.

The smaller architectural details often reveal more about construction than the gigantic central space.

And the fifth is treating King’s solely as a historic attraction.

If Evensong is available, return.

The building was created for music and worship.

Hearing it used for that purpose changes the entire experience.

How Long Do You Need at King’s College?

For a quick visit:

45 minutes is possible.

For a proper visit:

Allow 60–90 minutes.

For architecture lovers:

Two hours is reasonable, especially if you spend time examining the glass, side chapels and grounds.

If attending Evensong separately, add approximately another hour plus queuing time.

Do not schedule King’s immediately before another timed attraction.

The Chapel has enough detail to punish tight itineraries.

Best Time of Day to Visit

Early morning is generally best for the grounds and King’s Parade.

The street becomes significantly busier later in the day.

Inside the Chapel, light changes constantly.

A bright day brings the stained glass alive.

Overcast conditions create a cooler, more austere interior that suits the stone exceptionally well.

Late afternoon can be excellent for the lawns and riverside views.

If your priority is photography, visit the exterior more than once.

King’s is one of those buildings whose colour changes dramatically with English weather.

Visiting King’s College in 2026

Sightseeing access includes King’s College Chapel and the College grounds when open.

Other College buildings remain private.

Advance booking is strongly recommended because visitor numbers are limited and same-day tickets are not guaranteed.

Current self-guided adult prices are approximately:

Weekdays: £15.75 online in advance or £17 purchased in person.

Weekends: £16.75 online in advance or £18 purchased in person.

Reduced rates are available for students and children aged 5–17.

Opening hours vary according to College life, services, examinations and special events.

This is important.

Do not build a Cambridge itinerary around assumed fixed opening times.

King’s is an active college and Chapel first, visitor attraction second.

Accessibility

The principal visitor route into the Chapel has step-free access.

The main internal areas have wide aisles and seating is available.

A ramp connects the ante-chapel and choir.

Some side chapels remain difficult or impossible for wheelchair users because of steep or uneven historic steps.

The Memorial Chapel also requires steps.

The College grounds themselves are largely accessible along the principal visitor paths.

Photography

Photography is normally permitted during sightseeing visits subject to current restrictions.

Flash, tripods and intrusive equipment are not appropriate.

During religious services, photography, video and audio recording are prohibited.

That rule should be taken seriously.

The easiest way to experience Evensong properly is also the simplest:

put the phone away.

How to Get to King’s College

King’s College stands directly on King’s Parade in the historic centre of Cambridge.

From Cambridge railway station, the walk takes roughly 20–25 minutes.

The route through Regent Street and the city centre is straightforward.

Local buses and taxis reduce the journey if necessary.

Driving directly to King’s is unnecessary and inconvenient.

Central Cambridge is compact, heavily pedestrianised in places and poorly suited to visitor traffic.

If arriving by car, use a Park & Ride site or central car park and continue on foot.

What to See Nearby

King’s sits at the absolute centre of historic Cambridge.

Within a few minutes on foot you can reach:

• Great St Mary’s Church, for the best elevated view of King’s Chapel
• Senate House
• Gonville and Caius College
• Trinity College
• St John’s College
• Corpus Christi and the Corpus Clock
• Queens’ College
• The Eagle
• Cambridge Market Square
• The River Cam and the Backs

If you want the best exterior photograph of King’s, do not simply stand outside the gate.

Climb Great St Mary’s tower.

From there the Chapel’s towers, roof and vast proportions finally become legible as a complete architectural object.

Is King’s College Chapel Worth the Admission Price?

Yes.

Cambridge has enough beautiful college architecture that paying repeatedly for entrances quickly becomes questionable.

King’s is the exception.

The combination of the fan vault, Renaissance glass, Tudor screen, Rubens, choir and grounds gives it substantially more than a famous façade.

It is also one of the few Cambridge attractions where a single building explains several major periods of English history at once.

Lancastrian royal ambition.

The Wars of the Roses.

Tudor propaganda.

The Reformation.

English Gothic engineering.

European Renaissance art.

World War remembrance.

Modern choral culture.

All of it sits inside the same stone shell.

If you visit only one Cambridge college interior, this is the one.

Useful Information

• Name: King’s College, University of Cambridge
• Location: King’s Parade, Cambridge
• Founded: 1441
• Founder: Henry VI
• Chapel construction: begun 1446; main stone structure completed 1515
• Architectural style: English Perpendicular Gothic
• Essential feature: largest fan-vaulted ceiling in existence
• Chapel length: approximately 88 metres
• Best artwork: Rubens’ Adoration of the Magi
• Essential decorative feature: sixteenth-century stained glass
• Tudor highlight: rood screen associated with Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn
• Best experience: Choral Evensong during university term
• Recommended visit: 60–90 minutes
• Adult sightseeing ticket: approximately £15.75–£18 depending on day and booking method
• Advance booking: strongly recommended
• Services: free to attend
• Accessibility: principal Chapel route is step-free; some side chapels are not fully accessible
• Photography: permitted during normal sightseeing subject to restrictions; prohibited during services
• Nearest essential viewpoint: Great St Mary’s Church tower
• Best combined visit: King’s College, Great St Mary’s, Trinity College and a punt along the Backs

Alfredo Ravanetti